What Is Attachment? Understanding the Foundations of Human Connection

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The father of Attachment Theory, John Bowlby, observes that attachment is a fundamental psychological concept that explains how humans form deep emotional bonds with others, especially during early life. In my course on Attachment Types, we learn that these bonds are crucial for shaping healthy social relationships, emotional wellbeing and even our behaviour throughout every stage of life. But what is attachment? How does it develop, and why is it so crucial?

In this article, we’ll explore attachment through major theories, key approaches and influential research. By tracing attachment back to its origins, you will gain a comprehensive understanding of this vital aspect of human development and the impact it has on a person's future mental health status and their degree of psychological flexibility. Moreover, it will become apparent how early attachment experiences can shape our relationship to ourselves and those around us.

Furthermore, as well as gaining clarity on critical insights, you will be able to delve deeper into the attachment theory by accessing the diverse range of helpful resources – such as books, articles and our growing library of blogs.

So, let’s start with:

What is attachment

Attachment refers to the emotional bond that develops between an infant and their primary caregiver, typically a parent. John Bowlby (1969), often regarded as the father of attachment theory, described attachment as an innate biological system evolved to keep infants close to their caregivers for safety and survival. It is through this secure base that children explore the world and develop social and emotional intelligence skills.

Bowlby famously wrote that ‘young children, who for whatever reason are deprived of the continuous care and attention of a mother or a substitute-mother, are not only temporarily disturbed by such deprivation, but may in some cases suffer long-term effects.’ These effects, he goes on to argue, ‘persist’ into adulthood and impact on our relationship with ourselves and those around us. These important relational themes form the bedrock of his illuminating and highly impactful book The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds.

Mary Ainsworth (1978), a close collaborator of Bowlby, expanded this concept through empirical research, highlighting how differences in caregiver responsiveness result in different attachment styles. The quality of early attachment relationships has long-lasting impacts on an individual’s emotional regulation, interpersonal functioning and mental health. This is expressed in the powerful quote:

“In hatred as in love, we grow like the thing we brood upon. What we loathe, we graft into our very soul.”

The origins: Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

John Bowlby’s pioneering work in the mid-20th century shifted the understanding of child development by emphasising the importance of early relationships. He argued that children are biologically predisposed to seek proximity to a primary attachment figure as a survival mechanism. When a caregiver is consistently available and responsive, the child develops a sense of security and trust.

However, as Bowlby explains in his seminal text on the subject of attachment, A Secure Base, ‘when a relationship to a special loved person is endangered,’ we can become anxious, afraid and even angry. ‘As responses to the risk of loss, anxiety and anger go hand in hand.’ Only on a secure base can social, emotional and intellectual growth be built.

Bowlby introduced several key concepts:

● Secure base: The caregiver provides a reliable foundation from which the child can explore the environment confidently.

● Safe haven: In times of stress or threat, the child returns to the caregiver for comfort and reassurance.

● Internal working models: Early experiences of attachment shape mental representations of self and others, influencing future relationships.

Bowlby’s theory was revolutionary because it framed attachment as an evolutionary system and highlighted the significance of early emotional bonds for psychological development.

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation and attachment styles

Mary Ainsworth’s (1978) research built on Bowlby’s foundation, operationalising attachment through the famous Strange Situation procedure. This structured observational study assesses how infants respond to separations and reunions with their caregiver.

The most notable of Ainsworth’s studies was when she conducted controlled experiment that enabled researchers to observe how children react in strange situations. For example, one such study involved introducing mother (caregiver) and child to a room with toys. Others included the introduction of a stranger and brief separation periods between mother and child.

From these studies, Ainsworth identified three primary attachment styles:

Primary attachment styles

1. Secure attachment: Infants seek comfort from the caregiver when distressed and are easily soothed upon reunion. These children feel confident to explore because they trust their caregiver’s availability.

2. Insecure-avoidant attachment: Infants show little distress when the caregiver leaves and avoid them upon return, indicating emotional detachment or suppression of attachment needs.

3. Insecure-resistant (ambivalent) attachment: Infants are highly distressed during separation and show ambivalence or difficulty settling upon reunion, reflecting inconsistent caregiver responsiveness.

Later research (Main & Solomon, 1986) added a fourth category, disorganised attachment, characterised by contradictory behaviours and confusion, often linked to trauma or neglect.

Attachment beyond childhood: Lifespan perspectives

Attachment theory is not confined to infancy; it extends into adulthood and shapes romantic relationships, friendships and parenting. Hazan and Shaver (1987) were among the first to apply attachment concepts to adult romantic bonds, proposing that early attachment patterns influence how adults form and maintain intimate relationships.

In adult attachment research, the styles translate roughly to:

● Secure: Comfortable with intimacy and autonomy.

● Anxious-preoccupied: Crave closeness but fear abandonment.

● Dismissive-avoidant: Maintain emotional distance and independence.

● Fearful-avoidant: Desire connection but fear rejection.

These adult attachment styles affect relationship satisfaction, conflict resolution and emotional regulation, illustrating the pervasive impact of early attachment experiences.

Key approaches to studying attachment

What follows is a brief outline of contemporary key approaches to studying attachment. Back when Bowlby and Ainsworth were forging the theory, they had to rely primarily on observational methodologies. In recent years, technological advances (principally fMRI and EEG) in neuroscience have enabled researchers to monitor how the brain responds during attachment. Such advances have yielded a wealth of novel insights that have served to support traditional methods.

Developmental psychology

Developmental psychology examines how attachment behaviours emerge and evolve in infancy and childhood. Longitudinal studies, such as the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation (Sroufe et al., 2005), have shown that early secure attachment predicts better emotional regulation, social competence and resilience.

Neuroscience and attachment

Recent advances in neuroscience have illuminated the brain mechanisms underlying types of attachment. For example, studies show that secure attachment is associated with healthy functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which regulates stress responses (Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007). Oxytocin, a neuropeptide linked to bonding and trust, is also implicated in attachment behaviours (Feldman, 2012).

Attachment insecurity, especially disorganised attachment, has been linked with dysregulation of neural circuits related to emotion and threat processing, contributing to vulnerability to mental health issues such as anxiety and depression.

Psychotherapeutic approaches

Attachment theory has deeply influenced psychotherapy. Therapists use attachment-informed approaches to help clients understand and heal early relational wounds. For example:

● Emotionally Focused Therapy (EFT): Developed by Sue Johnson, EFT focuses on reshaping adult attachment bonds in romantic relationships through fostering secure emotional connections.

● Attachment-Based Therapy: This approach works to repair insecure or anxious attachment patterns, often through exploring early attachment experiences and building corrective relational experiences in therapy.

● Somatic and relational therapies also integrate attachment concepts, emphasising how early attachment disruptions are stored in the body and can be transformed through embodied relational work.

Why attachment matters

Attachment is foundational because it influences:

● Emotional regulation: Secure attachment provides a safe base for developing skills to manage emotions.

● Social relationships: Early attachment models guide expectations and interactions with others and helps to build and maintain healthy relationships.

● Mental health: Insecure attachment styles are associated with a higher risk of mood disorders, personality disorders and trauma-related difficulties.

● Parenting: Adults often replicate their attachment patterns with their own children, perpetuating cycles across generations.

Understanding attachment thus offers pathways for prevention, intervention and healing in both personal development and clinical practice.

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Conclusion

Attachment is a complex but essential psychological concept that explains how humans form emotional bonds critical for survival, growth, and wellbeing. From Bowlby’s evolutionary theory to Ainsworth’s empirical research and contemporary neuroscience, attachment remains a vibrant area of study and application.

Whether in childhood or adulthood, secure attachment fosters resilience and healthy relationships, while insecurity can signal areas needing care and repair. By recognising the importance of attachment, therapists, parents and individuals can work towards deeper connection and emotional health.

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References

Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Lawrence Erlbaum.

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. Basic Books.

Bolby, J (2005). The Secure Base. Routledge Classics.

Feldman, R. (2012). Oxytocin and social affiliation in humans. Hormones and Behaviour, 61(3), 380–391.

Gunnar, M. R., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173.

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualised as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524.

Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of an insecure-disorganised/disoriented attachment pattern. In T. B. Brazelton & M. W. Yogman (Eds.), Affective development in infancy (pp. 95–124). Ablex.

Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E., & Collins, W. A. (2005). The development of the person: The Minnesota study of risk and adaptation from birth to adulthood. Guilford Press.

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About Dr Laura Allen –

A Chartered Psychologist & Integrative Therapist, Dr Allen specialises in a broad range of therapeutic methods. She is a published author of numerous research papers and Interactive Courses in the field of Psychology. Dr Allen works one-to-one with clients and supervises other practitioners. She is also a proud member of the British Psychological Society assessment team supporting psychologists in training.